The combination of photocatalysis and cavitation towards remediation of pharmaceuticals in water: Recent advances from lab to pilot scale

The accumulation of pharmaceutical compounds has emerged as one of the most serious environmental issues due to their proven or potential adverse influences on aquatic organisms, human health, and the wider environment. Various methods including cavitation and photocatalysis have been used for the remediation of these substances from aqueous environments. This review explores the use of cavitation and its combination with photocatalysis as a promising solution to degrade pharmaceuticals. The synergistic effect of the hybrid system and kinetics analysis are examined to provide deeper insights into the mechanism of pharmaceutical remediation. Additionally, the technology readiness level (TRL) scale is discussed as an important parameter associated with advancing the hybrid (cavitation and photocatalysis) system for pharmaceuticals removal. Electrical energy per order is also employed to compare and assess this technique. A view towards industrial deployment, cost estimations and the environmental risk assessment are suggested to advance this hybrid process to further reduce the adverse effects of pharmaceuticals’ accumulation. This review will be of use to researchers, policy makers and scientists aiming to understand the advances in cavitation and photocatalysis for degradation of pharmaceuticals.